第45章個体群と群集の生態学
Logistic Growthロジスティック増加
Exponential growth is possible only when infinite natural resources are available; this is not the case in the real world. Charles Darwin recognized this fact in his description of the “struggle for existence,” which states that individuals will compete (with members of their own or other species) for limited resources. The successful ones will survive to pass on their own characteristics and traits (which we know now are transferred by genes) to the next generation at a greater rate (natural selection). To model the reality of limited resources, population ecologists developed the logistic growth model.
英語のヒント
指数増加は、自然資源が無限に利用できる場合にだけ可能だが、現実にはそうではない。ダーウィンは「生存競争」の説明で、この事実を認識していた。個体は限られた資源をめぐり、同種または別種の個体と競争する。成功したものが生き残り、自身の特徴や形質を、より高い割合で次世代へ渡す。これが自然選択である。現在では、形質が遺伝子を通じて伝わることが分かっている。資源が有限である現実をモデル化するため、個体群生態学者はロジスティック増加モデルを開発した。
Carrying Capacity and the Logistic Model環境収容力とロジスティックモデル
In the real world, with its limited resources, exponential growth cannot continue indefinitely. Exponential growth may occur in environments where there are few individuals and plentiful resources, but when the number of individuals gets large enough, resources will be depleted, slowing the growth rate. Eventually, the growth rate will plateau or level off (Figure 45.9). This population size, which represents the maximum population size that a particular environment can support, is called the carrying capacity, or K.
英語のヒント
資源が限られる現実の世界では、指数増加は無期限には続かない。個体が少なく資源が豊富な環境では起こりうるが、個体数が十分多くなると資源が枯渇し、増加速度が下がる。やがて増加は頭打ちになる(図45.9)。この個体群サイズ、すなわち特定の環境が支えられる最大の個体群サイズを、環境収容力Kと呼ぶ。
The formula we use to calculate logistic growth adds the carrying capacity as a moderating force in the growth rate. The expression “K – N” indicates how many individuals may be added to a population at a given stage, and “K – N” divided by “K” is the fraction of the carrying capacity available for further growth. Thus, the exponential growth model is restricted by this factor to generate the logistic growth equation:
英語のヒント
ロジスティック増加の計算式では、増加速度を抑える要因として環境収容力を加える。K−Nは、ある段階で個体群へさらに加えられる個体数を示す。これをKで割った値は、環境収容力のうち、今後の増加に使える割合である。したがって、指数増加モデルをこの要因で制限すると、ロジスティック増加の式が得られる。
Notice that when N is very small, (K-N)/K becomes close to K/K or 1, and the right side of the equation reduces to rmaxN, which means the population is growing exponentially and is not influenced by carrying capacity. On the other hand, when N is large, (K-N)/K comes close to zero, which means that population growth will be slowed greatly or even stopped. Thus, population growth is greatly slowed in large populations by the carrying capacity K. This model also allows for the population of a negative population growth, or a population decline. This occurs when the number of individuals in the population exceeds the carrying capacity (because the value of (K-N)/K is negative).
英語のヒント
Nが非常に小さいと、(K−N)/KはK/K、すなわち1に近づき、式の右辺はrmaxNに近づく。これは、個体群が指数関数的に増え、環境収容力の影響を受けないことを意味する。一方、Nが大きいと(K−N)/Kは0に近づき、増加は大幅に遅くなり、場合によっては止まる。このように、大きな個体群では環境収容力Kによって増加が強く抑えられる。このモデルは、負の増加、すなわち個体群の減少も表せる。個体数が環境収容力を超えたときに起こり、その場合は(K−N)/Kが負となる。
A graph of this equation yields an S-shaped curve (Figure 45.9), and it is a more realistic model of population growth than exponential growth. There are three different sections to an S-shaped curve. Initially, growth is exponential because there are few individuals and ample resources available. Then, as resources begin to become limited, the growth rate decreases. Finally, growth levels off at the carrying capacity of the environment, with little change in population size over time.
英語のヒント
この式のグラフはS字型となり(図45.9)、指数増加より現実的な個体群増加モデルになる。曲線は3つの部分に分けられる。初めは、個体が少なく資源が豊富なため指数増加する。次に、資源が制限され始めると増加速度が下がる。最後に、環境収容力で横ばいとなり、時間がたっても個体群サイズはほとんど変わらない。
Role of Intraspecific Competition種内競争の役割
The logistic model assumes that every individual within a population will have equal access to resources and, thus, an equal chance for survival. For plants, the amount of water, sunlight, nutrients, and the space to grow are the important resources, whereas in animals, important resources include food, water, shelter, nesting space, and mates.
英語のヒント
ロジスティックモデルは、個体群内のすべての個体が、資源を等しく利用でき、そのため生存の機会も等しいと仮定する。植物では、水、日光、栄養物質、成長する空間が重要な資源である。一方、動物では、食料、水、隠れ場所、営巣場所、繁殖相手などが重要となる。
In the real world, phenotypic variation among individuals within a population means that some individuals will be better adapted to their environment than others. The resulting competition between population members of the same species for resources is termed intraspecific competition (intra- = “within”; -specific = “species”). Intraspecific competition for resources may not affect populations that are well below their carrying capacity—resources are plentiful and all individuals can obtain what they need. However, as population size increases, this competition intensifies. In addition, the accumulation of waste products can reduce an environment’s carrying capacity.
英語のヒント
現実には、個体群内に表現型の変異があるため、環境への適応度がほかより高い個体がいる。その結果起こる、同じ種の個体間での資源をめぐる競争を、種内競争という。英語のintraspecificは、intra-が「内部」、-specificが「種」を意味する。個体群サイズが環境収容力を大きく下回ると、資源が豊富で全個体が必要なものを得られるため、資源をめぐる種内競争の影響は現れない場合がある。しかし、個体群が大きくなるほど競争は激しくなる。また、老廃物の蓄積は、環境収容力を低下させうる。
Examples of Logistic Growthロジスティック増加の例
Yeast, a microscopic fungus used to make bread and alcoholic beverages, exhibits the classical S-shaped curve when grown in a test tube (Figure 45.10a). Its growth levels off as the population depletes the nutrients. In the real world, however, there are variations to this idealized curve. Examples in wild populations include sheep and harbor seals (Figure 45.10b). In both examples, the population size exceeds the carrying capacity for short periods of time and then falls below the carrying capacity afterwards. This fluctuation in population size continues to occur as the population oscillates around its carrying capacity. Still, even with this oscillation, the logistic model is confirmed.