第19章集団の進化

Another important evolutionary force is gene flow: the flow of alleles in and out of a population due to the migration of individuals or gametes (Figure 19.6). While some populations are fairly stable, others experience more flux. Many plants, for example, send their pollen far and wide, by wind or by bird, to pollinate other populations of the same species some distance away. Even a population that may initially appear to be stable, such as a pride of lions, can experience its fair share of immigration and emigration as developing males leave their mothers to seek out a new pride with genetically unrelated females. This variable flow of individuals in and out of the group not only changes the population's gene structure, but it can also introduce new genetic variation to populations in different geological locations and habitats.

Mutations are changes to an organism’s DNA and are an important driver of diversity in populations. Species evolve because of mutations accumulating over time. The appearance of new mutations is the most common way to introduce novel genotypic and phenotypic variability. Some mutations are unfavorable or harmful and are quickly eliminated from the population by natural selection. Others are beneficial and will spread through the population. Whether or not a mutation is beneficial or harmful is determined by whether it helps an organism survive to sexual maturity and reproduce. Some mutations do not do anything and can linger, unaffected by natural selection, in the genome. Some can have a dramatic effect on a gene and the resulting phenotype.

If individuals nonrandomly mate with their peers, the result can be a changing population. There are many reasons nonrandom mating occurs. One reason is simple mate choice. For example, female peahens may prefer peacocks with bigger, brighter tails. Natural selection picks traits that lead to more mating selections for an individual. One common form of mate choice, called assortative mating, is an individual’s preference to mate with partners who are phenotypically similar to themselves.

Another cause of nonrandom mating is physical location. This is especially true in large populations spread over vast geographic distances where not all individuals will have equal access to one another. Some might be miles apart through woods or over rough terrain, while others might live immediately nearby.

Genes are not the only players involved in determining population variation. Other factors, such as the environment (Figure 19.7) also influence phenotypes. A beachgoer is likely to have darker skin than a city dweller, for example, due to regular exposure to the sun, an environmental factor. For some species, the environment determines some major characteristics, such as sex. For example, some turtles and other reptiles have temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD). TSD means that individuals develop into males if their eggs are incubated within a certain temperature range, or females at a different temperature range. Because these phenotypic differences are due to environmental variation instead of genetic differences, they cannot be inherited and do not lead to evolution. However, environmental variation can affect evolution through natural selection favoring different alleles and shaping different phenotypes in different environments.

Geographic separation between populations can lead to differences in the phenotypic variation between those populations. We see such geographical variation between most populations and it can be significant. We can observe one type of geographic variation, a cline, as given species' populations vary gradually across an ecological gradient. Species of warm-blooded animals, for example, tend to have larger bodies in the cooler climates closer to the earth’s poles, allowing them to better conserve heat. This is a latitudinal cline. Alternatively, flowering plants tend to bloom at different times depending on where they are along a mountain slope. This is an altitudinal cline.

If there is gene flow between the populations, the individuals will likely show gradual differences in phenotype along the cline. Restricted gene flow, alternatively can lead to abrupt differences, even speciation.