第27章貨幣と銀行制度
How Banks Go Bankrupt銀行はどのように破綻するか
A bank that is bankrupt will have a negative net worth, meaning its assets will be worth less than its liabilities. How can this happen? Again, looking at the balance sheet helps to explain.
英語のヒント
破綻した銀行では純資産が負となる。つまり、資産の価値が負債を下回る。なぜこのようなことが起こるのだろうか。ここでも貸借対照表を見ると理解しやすい。
A well-run bank will assume that a small percentage of borrowers will not repay their loans on time, or at all, and factor these missing payments into its planning. Remember, the calculations of the banks' expenses every year include a factor for loans that borrowers do not repay, and the value of a bank’s loans on its balance sheet assumes a certain level of riskiness because some customers will not repay loans. Even if a bank expects a certain number of loan defaults, it will suffer if the number of loan defaults is much greater than expected, as can happen during a recession. For example, if the Safe and Secure Bank in Figure 27.5 experienced a wave of unexpected defaults, so that its loans declined in value from $5 million to $3 million, then the assets of the Safe and Secure Bank would decline so that the bank had negative net worth.
英語のヒント
適切に運営される銀行は、少数の借り手が期限どおり返済しない、またはまったく返済しないと想定し、その支払いの欠落を計画に織り込む。銀行の毎年の費用計算には未返済の貸出しが織り込まれ、貸借対照表上の貸出金の価値にも、一部の顧客が返済しないことによる一定のリスクが想定されている点を思い出そう。ある程度の貸倒れを予想していても、不況時のように貸倒れが予想を大きく上回れば、銀行は打撃を受ける。たとえば図27.5のセーフ・アンド・セキュア銀行で予想外の貸倒れが相次ぎ、貸出金の価値が500万ドルから300万ドルへ下がれば、資産が減って純資産は負になる。
The risk of an unexpectedly high level of loan defaults can be especially difficult for banks because a bank’s liabilities, namely it customers' deposits. Customers can withdraw funds quickly but many of the bank’s assets like loans and bonds will only be repaid over years or even decades. This asset-liability time mismatch—the ability for customers to withdraw bank’s liabilities in the short term while customers repay its assets in the long term—can cause severe problems for a bank. For example, imagine a bank that has loaned a substantial amount of money at a certain interest rate, but then sees interest rates rise substantially. The bank can find itself in a precarious situation. If it does not raise the interest rate it pays to depositors, then deposits will flow to other institutions that offer the higher interest rates that are now prevailing. However, if the bank raises the interest rates that it pays to depositors, it may end up in a situation where it is paying a higher interest rate to depositors than it is collecting from those past loans that it at lower interest rates. Clearly, the bank cannot survive in the long term if it is paying out more in interest to depositors than it is receiving from borrowers.
英語のヒント
予想外に高い水準の貸倒れリスクが銀行にとって特に厳しいのは、銀行の負債が顧客の預金だからである。顧客は資金を素早く引き出せるが、貸出金や債券など銀行の多くの資産は、何年も、場合によっては何十年もかけてしか返済されない。この資産・負債の期間不一致、すなわち顧客が銀行の負債を短期で引き出せる一方、銀行の資産は長期にわたって返済されるという関係は、銀行に深刻な問題を生じさせうる。たとえば、銀行がある金利で多額の貸出しを行った後、金利が大きく上昇したとしよう。銀行は危うい状況に陥りうる。預金金利を上げなければ、預金は現在の高い金利を提供する他の金融機関へ流れる。しかし預金金利を上げると、以前に低い金利で行った貸出しから受け取る利息より、預金者へ支払う利息の方が高くなりかねない。借り手から受け取る以上の利息を預金者に払い続ければ、銀行は長期的には存続できないことは明らかである。
How can banks protect themselves against an unexpectedly high rate of loan defaults and against the risk of an asset-liability time mismatch? One strategy is for a bank to diversify its loans, which means lending to a variety of customers. For example, suppose a bank specialized in lending to a niche market—say, making a high proportion of its loans to construction companies that build offices in one downtown area. If that one area suffers an unexpected economic downturn, the bank will suffer large losses. However, if a bank loans both to consumers who are buying homes and cars and also to a wide range of firms in many industries and geographic areas, the bank is less exposed to risk. When a bank diversifies its loans, those categories of borrowers who have an unexpectedly large number of defaults will tend to be balanced out, according to random chance, by other borrowers who have an unexpectedly low number of defaults. Thus, diversification of loans can help banks to keep a positive net worth. However, if a widespread recession occurs that touches many industries and geographic areas, diversification will not help.
英語のヒント
銀行は、予想外に高い貸倒れ率や資産・負債の期間不一致のリスクから、どう身を守れるだろうか。一つの戦略は貸出先を分散すること、つまり多様な顧客に融資することである。たとえば、ある都心地域でオフィスを建設する会社への融資が大部分を占めるなど、銀行が狭い市場への融資に特化していたとしよう。その地域で予想外の景気悪化が起きれば、銀行は大きな損失を被る。しかし、住宅や車を買う消費者にも、多くの産業や地域の幅広い企業にも融資すれば、リスクへのさらされ方は小さくなる。貸出先を分散すると、予想外に貸倒れの多い借り手の区分と、予想外に貸倒れの少ない区分が、偶然の作用によって相殺し合う傾向がある。したがって、貸出先の分散は銀行の純資産を正に保つ助けになる。しかし、多くの産業や地域に及ぶ広範な不況が起きると、分散は役に立たない。
Along with diversifying their loans, banks have several other strategies to reduce the risk of an unexpectedly large number of loan defaults. For example, banks can sell some of the loans they make in the secondary loan market, as we described earlier, and instead hold a greater share of assets in the form of government bonds or reserves. Nevertheless, in a lengthy recession, most banks will see their net worth decline because customers will not repay a higher share of loans in tough economic times.
英語のヒント
貸出先の分散に加えて、銀行には、予想外に多数の貸倒れが発生するリスクを減らすための戦略がいくつかある。たとえば、前述のとおり貸出債権の一部を流通市場で売り、その代わりに資産のより大きな割合を国債や準備として保有できる。それでも、長い不況では、経済状況の厳しさから返済されない貸出しの割合が上がるため、ほとんどの銀行で純資産が減る。