第14章冷戦期の紛争Cold War Conflicts

Mao Zedong wanted China to chart the direction that communism took in Asia, just as the Soviet Union determined its direction in Europe. To do so, however, China needed to be much more powerful than it was in 1949, when the CCP declared the foundation of the People’s Republic and the Nationalists fled. In imitation of the Soviet model, Mao instituted a Five-Year Plan in China in 1953 and embarked on nearly seven hundred industrial projects, more than one hundred with the assistance of the Soviet Union. He also began the collectivization of agriculture by forcing peasants to labor together on state-owned farms instead of tending to farms worked by individual families. The plan was largely successful in terms of industrial development, and China’s steelmaking, coal mining, and machine- and cement-producing capacity all increased.

毛沢東は、ソ連がヨーロッパの共産主義の進路を定めるように、中国がアジアの共産主義の方向を決めることを望んだ。そのためには、共産党が人民共和国を宣言し国民党が逃れた1949年当時より、中国ははるかに強くなる必要があった。毛はソ連を模範として1953年に第一次五か年計画を開始し、約700の工業事業に着手した。100以上はソ連の援助を受けた。また、農民を各家族の農地で働かせる代わりに国有農場で共同労働させ、農業の集団化も始めた。工業発展の面では計画はおおむね成功し、製鉄、石炭採掘、機械生産、セメント生産の能力がいずれも増した。

Although the first Five-Year Plan was successful, the second Five-Year Plan proved a disaster. This plan, also known as the Great Leap Forward, began in 1958. Mao, inspired by the Soviet Union’s plans to overtake the United States in industrial capacity, proclaimed that China would surpass the United Kingdom. To that end, agricultural production was to increase at the same time as industrial production, and the proceeds of agriculture would fund industry. Collectivization efforts were intensified, and by the end of 1958 more than twenty-five thousand communes had been created, each consisting of several thousand families on average.

第一次五か年計画は成功したが、第二次五か年計画は惨事となった。「大躍進」とも呼ばれるこの計画は1958年に始まった。アメリカの工業生産力を追い越そうとするソ連の計画に触発され、毛沢東は中国がイギリスを上回ると宣言した。そのために、工業生産と同時に農業生産も増やし、農業の収益で工業へ資金を供給することとされた。集団化は強化され、1958年末までに、平均数千世帯からなる人民公社が2万5,000以上設けられた。

Communes were large units of production. Members worked together to grow crops in warm months and build construction projects during the winter. Food was prepared in communal kitchens, and everyone ate together in communal dining halls. Communes also operated schools and hospitals for their members. All tools, livestock, food, and other valuable items belonged to the commune as a whole instead of to individuals or families, and the commune’s leaders determined what work each member would do. Grain produced by communes in the countryside fed city dwellers and industrial workers. Encouraged to grow ever more, communes began to exaggerate their grain production levels to win political favor. Even as they strove to grow more food, laborers were also ordered to engage in extra projects like dam construction.

人民公社は大規模な生産単位だった。構成員は暖かい季節に共同で作物を育て、冬には建設事業に従事した。共同厨房で食事を作り、共同食堂で全員が食べた。学校や病院も公社が運営した。道具、家畜、食糧などの価値ある品は、個人や家族ではなく公社全体に属し、各人が何の仕事をするかは公社の指導者が決めた。農村の公社で生産した穀物は、都市住民や工業労働者を養った。さらに増産するよう促された公社は、政治的な評価を得ようと生産量を水増し報告し始めた。より多くの食糧を作ろうと努める一方で、労働者はダム建設などの追加事業にも従事するよう命じられた。

Farm laborers were also ordered to produce steel in backyard furnaces hastily built in the countryside (Figure 14.11). Some were assigned to steel production exclusively, but others who worked in the fields by day were often forced to tend the furnaces at night. To meet quotas, they stripped the countryside of wood and burned their own furniture to fuel the furnaces. In the end, the steel produced was of such low quality that it was worthless.

農業労働者はさらに、農村に急造された小型の炉で鉄鋼を生産するよう命じられた（図14.11）。製鉄だけを担当する者もいたが、昼は畑で働き、夜は炉の世話を強いられる者もいた。ノルマを満たすため、農村の木を伐り尽くし、自分の家具まで燃料にした。しかし結局、できた鉄鋼は質が低すぎて役に立たなかった。

The requisitioning of grain to feed the cities combined with bad weather and the use of farm labor for industrial projects to produce disaster in rural China. In some areas, floods and locust swarms destroyed crops. In others, too much of the harvest was diverted to the cities to leave enough for the peasants to eat. Famine set in, and people ate bark, leaves, and clay. Some Chinese historians place the death toll at five million, while Western historians believe thirty to fifty million people died between 1959 and 1961.

都市へ食糧を送るための穀物徴発に、悪天候と農業労働力の工業事業への転用が重なり、中国の農村に惨事が起きた。地域によっては洪水やイナゴの大群が作物を壊滅させ、別の地域では収穫の多くが都市へ回され、農民の食べる分が不足した。飢饉が広がり、人々は木の皮、葉、粘土まで食べた。中国の歴史家の一部は死者を500万人とし、西側の歴史家は1959年から1961年に3,000万〜5,000万人が死亡したと考えている。

The stupendous failure of the Great Leap Forward stunned Mao. He turned to other members of the CCP, Zhou Enlai, Deng Xiaoping, and Liu Shaoqi, to rectify the situation and allowed them to largely assume day-to-day control of China. Deng especially began to reverse some of Mao’s more damaging policies by, for example, allowing peasants to sell grain surpluses. Given positive incentives to produce more food, the peasants did so, alleviating food shortages. Mao was sensitive to failure, however, and resented the successes of Zhou, Deng, and Liu. When Marshall Peng Dehuai, the Minister of Defense and a longtime associate of Mao, criticized his handling of the Great Leap Forward, Mao dismissed him from his position and replaced him with Lin Biao.

大躍進の途方もない失敗に、毛沢東は衝撃を受けた。状況を立て直すため周恩来、鄧小平、劉少奇らに頼り、日々の中国統治を大きく任せた。とりわけ鄧は、農民が余剰穀物を売ることを認めるなど、毛の有害な政策の一部を撤回し始めた。増産する動機を与えられた農民は食糧を増やし、不足は和らいだ。しかし毛は失敗に敏感で、周、鄧、劉の成功を快く思わなかった。古くからの同志で国防部長の彭徳懐元帥が、大躍進の運営を批判すると、毛は解任し、林彪を後任に据えた。

In 1966, Mao abruptly warned that “revisionists” were seeking to alter the direction of the CCP. He called on the younger generation of Chinese people—high school and university students and young factory workers—to engage in “class struggle” and save the revolution. In July 1966 he launched the event known as the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Students organized themselves into groups of “Red Guards,” guided by quotations of Mao that Lin Biao had gathered and published in a “Little Red Book.”

1966年、毛沢東は突如、「修正主義者」が共産党の方向を変えようとしていると警告した。高校生や大学生、若い工場労働者に「階級闘争」を行って革命を救うよう呼びかけ、同年7月、文化大革命として知られる運動を開始した。学生たちは「紅衛兵」の集団を組織し、林彪が毛の言葉を集めて刊行した「小さな赤い本」、すなわち『毛主席語録』を指針とした。

In August 1966, millions of Red Guards rallied in Beijing as Mao and Lin Biao encouraged them to purge the country of “bourgeois” elements by attacking the “Four Olds”: old customs, old culture, old habits, and old ideas. Red Guards then attacked and killed their teachers and school administrators. At one school, students beat the gardener to death because he tended the lawn, a bourgeois concern. Provided with food and lodging at government expense, Red Guards rampaged through the country, destroying books, works of art, temples, monasteries, tombs, and historical sites. They beat people and forced them to confess to having bourgeois thoughts. No one knows how many were killed during the Cultural Revolution; it may have been as many as two million.

1966年8月、数百万人の紅衛兵が北京に集結した。毛沢東と林彪は、古い風俗、古い文化、古い習慣、古い思想という「四旧」を攻撃して、中国から「ブルジョワ」的要素を一掃するよう促した。紅衛兵は教師や学校管理者を襲い、殺害した。ある学校では、芝生の手入れがブルジョワ的な関心事だとして、生徒が庭師を殴り殺した。政府負担で食事と宿泊を与えられた紅衛兵は全国で暴れ回り、本、美術品、寺院、修道院、墓、史跡を破壊した。人々を殴り、ブルジョワ的思想を持っていたと告白するよう強いた。文化大革命で何人が殺されたかは不明だが、200万人に上る可能性がある。

Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping, who displayed insufficient revolutionary fervor, were removed from positions of power. In 1968, the Red Guards were themselves dismissed as Mao sought to curb their power. They were sent to the countryside along with other urban youth to learn from the peasants. In 1969, Lin Biao was named Mao’s successor. Two years later, Lin died in a plane crash while attempting to flee to the Soviet Union. He may have feared that Mao suspected him of plotting against him and planned to punish him.

革命への熱意が不十分とされた劉少奇と鄧小平は、権力の座から追われた。1968年には、毛沢東が紅衛兵の力を抑えようとして、紅衛兵自身も解散させられた。他の都市の若者とともに農村へ送られ、農民から学ぶよう求められた。1969年、林彪は毛の後継者に指名された。2年後、ソ連へ逃れようとする途中で飛行機が墜落し、林は死亡した。毛が自分の陰謀を疑い、処罰しようとしていると恐れたのかもしれない。