第12章現代哲学と社会理論Contemporary Philosophies and Social Theories
Radical Democracyラディカル・デモクラシー
“Radical democracy” can be defined as a mode of thought that allows for political difference to remain in tension and challenges both liberal and conservative ideas about government and society. According to radical democracy, the expectation of uniform belief among a society or portion of a society is opposed to the expressed and implied tenets of democracy (Kahn and Kellner 2007). If one wants freedom and equality, then disparate opinions must be allowed in the marketplace of ideas.
英語のヒント
「ラディカル・デモクラシー」は、政治的な相違を緊張関係のまま存続させ、政府と社会についてのリベラルな考えにも保守的な考えにも異議を申し立てる思考様式と定義できる。ラディカル・デモクラシーによれば、一つの社会、またはその一部が同じ信念をもつことを期待するのは、民主主義が明示的にも暗黙にも掲げる原則に反する（Kahn and Kellner 2007）。自由と平等を望むなら、思想の市場に異なる意見が存在することを認めなければならない。
One strand of radical democracy is associated with Habermas’s notion of deliberation as found in communicative action. Habermas argued for deliberation, not the normalizing of ideas through peer pressure and governmental influence, as a way in which ideological conflicts can be solved. Though Habermas admitted that different contexts will quite naturally disagree over important matters, the process of deliberation was viewed as making fruitful dialogue between those with opposing viewpoints possible (Olson [2011] 2014). Another type of radical democracy drew heavily on Marxist thought, asserting that radical democracy should not be based on the rational conclusions of individuals but grounded in the needs of the community.
英語のヒント
ラディカル・デモクラシーの一つの潮流は、コミュニケーション的行為に見られる、ハーバーマスの熟議の考えと結びついている。ハーバーマスは、同調圧力や政府の影響によって考えを標準化することではなく、熟議を、イデオロギー上の対立を解決する方法として主張した。ハーバーマスは、異なる文脈にある人々が重要な事柄について当然のように意見を異にすることを認めていた。それでも、熟議の過程は、対立する見解をもつ人々のあいだに実りある対話を可能にするものとみなされた（Olson [2011] 2014）。別の型のラディカル・デモクラシーは、マルクス主義の思想に強く依拠し、ラディカル・デモクラシーは個人の理性的な結論に基礎を置くのではなく、共同体の必要に根ざすべきだと主張した。
Summary要約
Within the postmodernism perspective, there is no absolute truth, and there are multiple right ways of belief. The postmodern view challenges the intellectual faith born in modernity that humanity might someday come closer to discovering universal truths.
ポストモダニズムの観点では、絶対的な真理は存在せず、正しい信念のあり方は複数ある。ポストモダンの見方は、人類がいつの日か普遍的真理の発見に近づけるかもしれないという、近代に生まれた知的な信頼に異議を申し立てる。
The tension between structuralism and post-structuralism parallels the tension between modernity and postmodernity. Ferdinand de Saussure advanced a theory in which meaning was embedded within a linguistic structure but the meaning itself is expressed through multiple mechanisms. With the so-called linguistic turn in philosophy, a challenge to the existence of universal systems (structures) was launched. As noted, three post-structuralist themes were: 1) the self itself is not static but a confluence of various forces, 2) the meaning of the author was secondary to the meaning derived from the audience, and 3) interpretations, even if conflicting, were necessarily plural. Derrida’s notion of deconstruction, of the need to consider the meaning accepted and the meaning obscured, followed intellectually from post-structuralism. If we deconstruct meaning, we work toward understanding the greater reasons surrounding why some interpretations were privileged and others rejected.
構造主義とポスト構造主義の緊張は、近代とポストモダンの緊張と並行している。フェルディナン・ド・ソシュールは、意味は言語構造のなかに埋め込まれている一方、その意味自体は複数の仕組みを通じて表現されるという理論を打ち出した。哲学における、いわゆる「言語論的転回」によって、普遍的な体系、すなわち構造の存在に対する挑戦が始まった。すでに述べたように、ポスト構造主義の三つの主題は、①自己そのものは静的なものではなく、さまざまな力の合流である、②著者の意味は受け手が導き出す意味に比べて二次的である、③解釈は、互いに矛盾する場合でも、必然的に複数である、というものであった。受け入れられた意味と覆い隠された意味の両方を検討する必要があるという、デリダの脱構築の考えは、思想上、ポスト構造主義から続くものである。意味を脱構築することで、ある解釈が特権化され、ほかの解釈が退けられた理由を取り巻く、より大きな事情の理解へと向かうのである。
A “genealogy” is the historical map that traces the past origins of present meanings. Nietzsche and his radical historicism used genealogies to draw meanings in a world thought of a void of objective meanings. Michel Foucault argued that tracing genealogies can help us expose shameful origins of practices and ideologies that foster oppression. Foucault sought to expose when power was used to oppress and when it was used to harm. Knowledge, argued Foucault, once freed from oppressive conventions, ought to be used to develop the self.
「系譜」とは、現在の意味の過去の起源をたどる、歴史的な地図である。ニーチェとその徹底した歴史主義は、客観的な意味を欠くものと考えられた世界において、意味を引き出すために系譜を用いた。ミシェル・フーコーは、系譜をたどることが、抑圧を助長する実践やイデオロギーの恥ずべき起源を明るみに出すのに役立つと論じた。フーコーは、権力がいつ抑圧に用いられ、いつ危害を与えるために用いられたのかを明らかにしようとした。彼は、知識は、抑圧的な慣習から解放されたならば、自己を発展させるために用いられるべきだと論じた。
Review Questions復習問題
How does postmodernity differ from modernity?
ポストモダンの時代は、近代とどのように異なるか。
Was Ferdinand de Saussure a structuralist or a post-structuralist? Why did you answer as you did?
ソシュールは構造主義者か、それともポスト構造主義者か。なぜか。
What did Jacques Derrida mean by “deconstruction”?
デリダは、脱構築という概念によって何を意味しているか。
On what grounds has psychoanalysis been criticized?
精神分析は、どのような点を根拠に批判されてきたか。
What is meant by the term genealogy as used by Foucault?
フーコーの系譜学とは、どのような意味なのか。
What was the importance of genealogy for Foucault?
フーコーの系譜学は、なぜ重要なのか。
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Critical race theory
批判的人種理論
approaches the concept of race as a social construct and examines how race has been defined by the power structure.
人種という概念を社会的に構築されたものとして扱い、権力構造が人種をどのように定義してきたかを検討する理論。
Deconstruction
脱構築
a method of connecting the meaning of a text to the social forces at play in its creation; a strategy for analyzing the ways in which humans create objects and essential ideas where they don’t naturally exist.
テクストの意味を、その成立において働いた社会的な力と結びつける方法。物や本質的な観念が自然には存在しないところで、人間がそれらをどのように作り出すかを分析する方策。
Postmodernism
ポストモダニズム
the philosophical perspective that there is no absolute truth to the universe, leaving no grand objective narratives to categorize and structure the world (as in modernism) but everything to individual interpretation; the idea that truth is perspective.
宇宙には絶対的な真理が存在せず、したがって、近代主義のように世界を分類し構造化する壮大で客観的な物語はなく、すべては個々の解釈に委ねられる、という哲学的な観点。真理は見方である、という考え。
Post-structuralism
ポスト構造主義
views supporting the idea that the world cannot be interpreted through preexisting structures because there are no such existing structures; the idea that the universe is a confluence of forces that are given different meanings by human and nonhuman agents over time.
あらかじめ存在する構造というものがない以上、そのような構造を通じて世界を解釈することはできない、という考えを支持する立場。宇宙とは諸力の合流であり、人間および人間以外の行為主体が、時を通じてそれに異なる意味を与える、という考え。
Psychoanalysis
精神分析
the attempt to cure mental illnesses by uncovering the unconscious elements that are said to be the foundation of human behavior.
人間の行動の基礎とされる無意識の要素を明らかにすることによって、精神疾患を治療しようとする試み。
Semiotics
記号学
an analysis of how meaning is created through symbols, both linguistic and nonlinguistic.
言語的な記号と非言語的な記号の両方を通じて、意味がどのように作られるかを分析すること。
Structuralism
構造主義
the belief that the universe has a certain objective structure to it and that language indicates this structure; the belief that in order to understand individual parts of the universe, one must understand their place in the overarching structure of things.
宇宙には一定の客観的な構造があり、言語はその構造を示すという信念。宇宙の個々の部分を理解するには、物事を包括する構造のなかで、それらが占める位置を理解しなければならないという信念。